Success Factors Affecting the Spread of E-commerce Worldwide Research Paper

Success Factors Affecting the Spread of E-commerce Worldwide - Research Paper Example E-commerce involves different transactions that are business-to-business, business-to-customer, and customer-to-customer (B2B, B2C, and C2C respectively) (Khosrowpour, pp. 21-25, 2004). With all such transactions, e-commerce is â€Å"the sharing of business information, maintaining business relationships and conducting business transactions using computers interconnected by a telecommunication system† (Fingar et al, 22-26, 2000). In this regard, nowadays, business organizations are profoundly relying on the platform of e-commerce to carry out their business activities; however, some critical or key success factors are playing a crucial role in the spread and success of e-commerce globally that will be the major focus of this paper. However, before stepping into the discussion of success factors of e-commerce, it is very imperative to understand the basics of e-commerce, and this will be possible with a basic understanding of different transactions encompassing the arena of e-c ommerce. From this aspect, bookshop was the first form of B2C application in the e-commerce that involved internet as a platform to sell books that gave an opportunity to the book suppliers to avoid physical stockings of the books, and it gave added-value facility to the book lovers to browse and buy the books without walking up to the bookstores. Another example of B2C is railway reservation applications that have become a fundamental need of railway companies to sell their tickets on the internet. Besides B2C, E-Bay is the best example of C2C e-commerce that involves two stakeholders (buyer/seller); however, until now, C2C has been limited mostly to second-hand items, paintings, and antique items in which, two individuals carry out the buying and selling process with the help of a third party that facilitates the business activity. Last, but the most important form of e-commerce is B2B that constitutes the major share of e-commerce, and has been enjoying significant importance since the emergence of e-commerce globally.

Definition of Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Research Paper

Definition of Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation - Research Paper Example   Since the institution of FDIC insurance in January 1934, no client has lost any deposited funds as a result of malfunction. This paper delves into the history of FDIC, its administration, operations, functions and effectiveness. It also looks into its performance over the years, whether or not it is regulated by laws and whether or not it is still a preferable insurance institution. My proposition with regard to FDIC is that has fulfilled its goals and revitalized many malfunctioned banks. Board of Directors This is the administrative body of the FDIC. It comprises of five members, three nominated by the U.S. president with the conformity of the U.S. Senate and two non-executive members. The three nominated by the president have six years of service. Only two representatives of the board may be of similar political inclination. The president, with the permission of the Senate, also selects one of the chosen representatives as chairperson of the board for five-year of service. In addition, another of the members is designated as vice chairperson of the board for a five-year term. History In the 1930s, the U.S. and many other countries around the world went through a harsh economic recession that is referred to as the Great Depression. At the peak of the depression, the unemployment rate was a quarter and the stock market had reduced by three quarters since 1929. Bank runs were regular since there was security on clients’ money in the banks. This is because banks just stored a percentage of deposits, and clients were at jeopardy of losing their cash that they had entrusted to the banks. In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt approved the Banking Act. FDIC made was a temporary state institution. It was given the mandate to offer deposit insurance to financial corporations. It was also given the power to control and administer government non-member banks. FDIC was provided with preliminary loans 289 million dollars via the U.S. Treasury and the Federal Re serve (Henriques, 2008). For the first time, federal supervision was extended to cover all money-making banks. Moreover, according to the (Glass-Steagall Act), these commercial banks were detached from investment banks. They were also hindered from reimbursing interest on checking account. Furthermore under this Act, state banks were permitted to have branches countrywide with the consent of state law. How FDIC Operates The FDIC’s workforce is approximately eight thousand people all over the country (Cole, 2009). The head offices are in Washington, D.C. Regional ones are found in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Kansas City, Memphis, New York City, and San Francisco. Moreover, field supervisors, whose responsibility is to carry out on-site scrutiny of banks, have ground offices in eighty more places throughout the nation. FDIC aims at safeguarding clients who keep their cash in banks against malfunction of banks.  Ã‚  

Plaease answer four questions that are in the assignment Coursework

Plaease answer four questions that are in the assignment - Coursework Example The diarthrodial joint between the forearm and humerus allows a hinge movement with the help of their lubricating fluid for the adduction and abduction movements to be possible (Tortora, 2008). Part 2: As the individual drinks water, the liquid enters the mouth passing through the esophagus to the stomach. From the stomach, the water travels to the small intestines while it begins to be absorbed in the stomach through diffusion and osmosis. The water is carried to the blood stream to continue its travel to the renal system. It is filtered out of the blood because of gradient pressure and carried to the renal artery to reach the glomerulus. Leaving this body part, the blood’s next destination is the Bowman’s capsule. From here, the water traverses the kidney tubule to approach the collecting tubules. However, not all waste fluid may arrived at the next stop because important substances still has to be reabsorbed back to the blood (Wagman, 1992). The rest which are waste products continue their journey to the collecting tubules until they enter the renal pelvis where they will spend some of their time. The waste liquid referred to as urine is slowly collected to the bladder to be expelled out of the body when it reaches its maximum amount via the ureters.

The Group Conflict Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Group Conflict - Essay Example The author of the essay "The Group Conflict" makes an interesting conclusion and gives his recommendations. He answers the question: "How to manage bullying in the workplace"? Develop and implement a plan to reduce the risk of workplace bullying, which should include the following steps: 1. Develop a culture of support for employees by: †¢ Improving the quality of performance feedback, including informal development oriented feedback as well as corrective feedback †¢ Improving the availability of flexible working arrangements, and ensuring fair and reasonable treatment of staff †¢ Communicating openly at all levels, fostering a more engaging work environment through involvement of staff in decision-making processes that impact on their work †¢ Increasing accountability of management by setting targets/goals and ensuring effective reporting structures. 2. Write a policy or code of conduct, in consultation with employees 3. Provide training on the organization’s policies and procedures, and ensure that supervisors and managers have the skills to recognize and deal with inappropriate behavior. Create awareness about what bullying is, the warning signals and effects, why it is not tolerated and include this information during induction of new employees. 4. Develop complaint handling and investigation procedures and treat all complaints seriously. 5. Appoint a contact person for informal inquiries, concerns or complaints, so that actions can be taken early in the process to avoid unacceptable behavior escalating into workplace bullying.

Advertising Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Advertising - Essay Example An advertisement has three chief types of copy; that is, the headline, body copy, and slogans (Bovee et al, 2007). The headline is the most significant and is usually positioned at the top in broad letters. This is because 80% of readers read the headlines only (Bovee et al, 2007). A typical American comes across more than 500 advertisements daily (Fowles, 2007). Therefore, copywriters must acquire the aptitude to appeal to reason, that is Logos, since the headlines must begin with pieces of evidence, and be able to draw conclusions from the evidence in the headline. The headline must have Ethical appeal, Ethos. This is a key element for consideration in an advertisement as it examines the integrity of the advertisement. The headline must depict respect to races, religion and the society itself; therefore a copywriter must consider Ethos when designing the headline. It brings the demand for affiliation (Fowles, 2007). Individuals need the feeling of friendship; thus copywriters ensure people feel that they need a product to be accepted in the society. The headline must have pathos, which is the appeal to emotions. This is the need to aggress (Fowles, 2007). When a reader reads an advertisement with a headline that assures to make them even with their foes, they fall for the product. The body copy is the second main element of an advertisement, and is graphical; since too many words bore the readers and too little words confuse readers (Bovee, 2007). They are catchy, colourful and complement the headline. The body of the advertisement must appeal to reason (Logos) that is, the reader must remember the picture he/she saw because it has to be reasonable. This is the requirement for aesthetic sensations, like pictures of landscapes and art (Fowles, 2007). The graphic picture must be ethical that is the argument appeal Ethos. Pictures that are disturbing or those that makes the populace uncomfortable should be shunned. These pictures evoke the feeling of

Assess the advantages of job specialisation Essay Example for Free

Assess the advantages of job specialisation Essay 1. Terminology Job Definition Job definitions in practice are usually only applied to low level manual and clerical jobs, at more senior levels there are usually greater degrees of own job making. There is a school of thought that suggests newly appointed staff ought to know exactly what their duties are in detail. The suggestion is that this higher degree of definition (or specification) helps to motivate employees by letting them know exactly what is expected of them. Others schools of thought are that, far from being motivating a high level of job definition acts to control peoples behaviour and sets minimum performance standards. Job Specialisation Job specialisation is typically a feature of bureaucratic organisations where there is an implied clear-cut division of labour and a high level of specialisation; this is especially relevant to both knowledge jobs and jobs of a manual or clerical nature. After general training some workers e.g. doctors may become gynaecologists, assembly line workers may specialise in fitting car tyres whilst others fit doors, therefore they become a specialist. The design of the organisation relates to what types of jobs should be created and how narrow and specialised they should be. Advantages of job specialisation would be: * Job holders can develop enormous skill in performing a narrowly defined and specified task * Job specialisation typically means that less work time is lost in switching from one job to another * Specialised equipment to increase productivity can be more easily developed in highly specified jobs * Training people for specialised jobs is relatively easy Disadvantages of job specialisation would be: * Boredom is a problem. Workers often get little satisfaction from the job and feel no pride in carrying out trivial tasks * Workers with highly specialised jobs often have high levels of absenteeism and job dissatisfaction and may quit more readily or develop antagonistic relationships with their superiors Once jobs have been designed, organisations must then group the jobs into logical units. At upper levels of an organisation, the groups may be called divisions, product groups or units. At middle and lower levels, they are usually called departments. Departmentalisation is the basis on which jobs are grouped together within an organisation. Another form of grouping is by product. This is a popular structural form in large organisations having a wide range of products or services. In the National Health Service, for example, the key groups of employees medical, nursing, paramedical and hotel services are dispersed according to the service they provide, e.g. maternity, orthopaedic, surgical, psychiatric etc. The advantage of a product organisation is that it facilitates co-ordination and integration, speeds up decision making and eases assessment of units performance. Disadvantages of this type of organisation are that there is some duplication of effort in the various functional areas and managers tend to focus narrowly on their product responsibilities rather than the overall organisation. Hierarchical Structure Hierarchy refers to the number of levels to be found in an organisation. In a company that has a flat organisation structure there are relatively few levels between the lowest and highest levels of authority. A hierarchy is the pattern of reporting relationships between individuals in positions throughout an organisation. The hierarchy has two purposes; to specify which positions are responsible for which areas of operation and to specify the authority of different positions relative to one another. Authority is the power created and granted by the organisation. Organisations must decide how authority is to be distributed among various positions, levels and departments. The process of distributing authority between managers and subordinates is known as delegation. Delegation is a three step process between a manager and one or more subordinates. 1) Assigning responsibility 2) Granting authority 3) Creating accountability Many managers are reluctant to delegate because they dont know how to do so or they feel threatened by a subordinate who performs well. Organisations need to help managers decide how much responsibility to delegate and to overcome the threat of being overshadowed. Decisions about how to distribute authority throughout an organisation result in decentralisation or centralisation. Decentralisation is the systematic delegation and responsibility to middle and lower levels of an organisation. Centralisation is the systematic retention of power and responsibility at higher levels of an organisation. Decentralisation and centralisation are the opposite ends of a continuum. Most firms are relatively more decentralised or relatively more centralised. Centralisation generally allows top managers to exercise control over the organisation, however, it also slows decision making and constrains innovation. Decentralisation distributes control more evenly throughout the organisation. It also tends to speed decision making and make the organisation more flexible and responsive. However, decentralisation allows more opportunities for errors in decision making. The decision to decentralise or centralise is influenced by the organisations environment, size and economic performance. Span of Control Delegation is essentially a power-sharing process in which individual managers transfer part of their legitimate authority to subordinates / team leaders, but without passing on their own ultimate responsibility for the completion of the overall task which has been entrusted to them by their own superiors. The reasons for delegation are mainly practical, but some are idealistic. Practical reasons include: * Senior managers can be relieved of less important, or less immediate, responsibilities in order to concentrate on more important duties * Delegation enables decisions to be taken nearer to the point of impact, and without the delays caused by frequent reference upwards * Delegation gives managers the opportunity to experience decision making and the consequences of their decisions * Delegation encourages managers to learn how to cope with responsibility * Delegation enables organisations to meet changing conditions more flexibly, especially at the boundaries of their system Idealistic reasons for delegation include: * Delegation is a good thing for individual growth, and contributes to staff morale * Delegation is the sine qua non of empowerment (Peter, 1988) * Delegation helps to enrich individuals jobs and humanises work. Most organisations find the need to delegate forced on them by circumstances, especially the pressures on managers to concentrate on environmental issues rather than on internal problems. However, the best practice is to be found in organisations that use delegation positively as an important employee motivator as well as a means of facilitating effective decision-making throughout the organisation. One of the major questions which has to be faced when considering the practical aspects of delegation is how many subordinates, or team members, can be managed effectively by any one manager or supervisor. This is the classical management issue of the so-called span of control, i.e. the number of employees reporting directly to one person. The term span of control refers to the number of subordinates that an individual manages or controls and for whose work that person is responsible. In tall hierarchical organisations an individual employee may have a wide span of control. In contrast in a teamwork structure the span of control may be narrow or may not exist at all. Within an organisation, the span of control bears an inverse relationship to the number of layers of hierarchy, i.e. if the span of control is narrow a large number of levels of hierarchy are needed. In practice spans can vary between one and forty or more subordinates directly supervised, although the most likely range is between three and twenty. Smaller spans tend to be found among managerial, professional and technical groups. Here factors such as cost, the complexity of the work and the need to deal adequately with the problems of people, who may themselves be managers of others, require a closer involvement by superiors in the total operation of their units. Towards the bottom end of the organisational hierarchy, where employees who have no subordinates themselves are carrying out routine tasks, it is practicable to have much larger spans. The whole question of spans of control is linked to top managements views about the number of levels they should have in their organisation. If a flat organisation is preferred, then larger spans are an inevitable consequence, especially for middle managers. If a tall structure is preferred, then spans can be smaller. Any final decision has to be a compromise between these opposing consequences. Other important influences on the size of the spans in an organisation or unit include: * The levels of ability of management i.e. are they capable of producing results with spans of a certain number. * The level of knowledge and experience of the subordinates concerned, e.g. well-trained and experienced staff require less supervision than those without training and experience * The complexity of the work of the unit and the degree of change to which it is subject, i.e. the more complex and more fast changing the work, the more necessary it is to install narrow spans of control * The costliness of possible mistakes by individuals in the unit * The degree of hazard or danger associated with the work, e.g. work on oil rigs or in biochemical laboratories requires special attention to safety procedures In a tall organisational structure many levels separate the lowest positions from the highest one. Hierarchical structures are taken to the extreme in organisations like the army. There are lots of different ranks or grades of workers, with different responsibilities, pay and status. Such organisations are meant to be more inflexible and bureaucratic. 2. Informal and Formal Organisational Structures Organisational structure can be viewed from many perspectives, but I find viewing it from a decision making perspective most useful. Structure exists to perform two essential functions within an organisation: a) Control Ensuring that decision makers at all levels use the managerial or hierarchical constraint as one of the criteria in making their decisions, and b) Coordination Ensuring that decision makers at all levels use lateral or peer constraints as criteria in their decision making The informal organisation structure usually consists of staff and workers who report directly to a small number of managers. This permits a strong influence on morale, motivation and how satisfied staff are with their jobs. This can assist in giving a fast response to customers and following up market opportunities quickly but can lead to confusion of responsibilities and confuse decision making. Organisational growth could lead to increased tension due to overlapping of job roles which would lead to the organisation adopting a formal organisational structure. The informal organisation is: * Flexible and loosely structured * Relationships may be left undefined * Membership is spontaneous and with varying degrees of involvement. The informal organisation can serve a number of important functions: * It provides satisfaction of members social needs, and a sense of personal identity and belonging * It provides for additional channels of communication; for example, through the grapevine information of importance to particular members is communicated quickly * It provides a means of motivation, for example, through status, social interaction, variety in routine or tedious jobs, and informal methods of work. * It provides a feeling of stability and security, and through informal norms of behaviour can exercise a form of control over members * It provides a means of highlighting deficiencies or weaknesses in the formal organisation, for example, areas of duties or responsibilities not covered in job descriptions or outdated systems and procedures. The informal organisation may also be used when formal methods would take too long, or not be appropriate, to deal with an unusual or unforeseen situation The informal organisation, therefore, has an important influence on the morale, motivation, job satisfaction and performance of staff. It can provide members with greater opportunity to use their initiative and creativity in both personal and organisational development. The informal organisation is the networks of relationships that employees form across functions and divisions to accomplish tasks fast. Control is also an integral part of the process of management and a key element for any organisation, playing an important role in the relationship between managers and their subordinates. Control is not only a function of the formal organisation and hierarchical structure of authority, it is also a feature of organisational behaviour and a function of interpersonal influence. The whole purpose of managerial control is the improvement in performance at both the individual and organisational level. Control involves the planning and organisation of work functions, and guiding and regulating the activities of staff. A social organisation is an ordered arrangement of individual human interactions. Control processes help circumscribe typical behaviours and keep them conformant to the rational plan of the organisation. Organisations require a certain amount of conformity as well as the integration of diverse activities. It is the function of control to bring about conformance to organisational requirement and achievement of the ultimate purposes of the organisation. At the organisational level, management need to exercise control over the behaviour and actions of staff in order to ensure a satisfactory level of performance. Managerial control systems are a means of checking progress to determine whether the objectives of the organisation are being achieved. Control provides a check on the execution of work and on the success or failure of the operations of organisations. There are two main types of control which can be used within the organisation and whichever one of these two styles is chosen plays an important factor in the relationship between the manager and his/her subordinates. Firstly, there is Behavioural Control which is based upon the direct personal supervision of the employees. This form of control appears more useful to the needs of individual managers in their attempts to control subordinates in one department or section. There is also Output Control which is based on the measurement of outputs and the results achieved. This form of control serves the needs of the organisation as a whole and is used largely because of the demand for simple measurement of organisational performance. There are five essential elements for a management control system to be truly successful. These factors include the planning of what is desired, establishing standards of performance, monitoring actual performance, comparing actual achievement against the planned target and also rectifying the taking of corrective action. Control is viewed as an essential feature of formal organisation and a hierarchical structure of authority. An alternative view of control is more in keeping with the human relations approach, control is seen as a feature of interpersonal influence and takes place within a network of interaction and communication. While the need for some form of control is constant, the extent and manner of control is variable. In the formal organisational structure there will be patterns of communication and procedures for decision making. Some organisations will have tall structures with lots of layers of command. Other organisations can be relatively flat. The formal structure is usually the first structure adopted after the simple informal organisational structure. It represents a significant shift from centralisation (one person in charge) to decentralisation. Management is divided into tasks of getting the work (sales marketing), carrying out the work (operations), getting the staff (personnel) and recording transactions and arranging finance (finance). This can lead to tension and inter-rivalry between functions, overlap, duplication of effort and difficulties in co-ordination can also occur. Formal structures are often based on specific tasks and it is how these tasks are allocated and the authority which they carry are explained by the organisational structure. The formal organisation is based on official links and connections whereas the informal organisation is based on loose ad hoc connections. It is much easier to set out an organisation chart for formal structure than for informal ones, which may not be obvious and may change although some informal structures are deeply embedded in working practice. The formal organisation is: * Deliberately planned and created * Concerned with the co-ordination of activities * Hierarchically structured with stated objectives, the specification of tasks, and defined relationships of authority and responsibility. Within the formal organisation an informal organisation will always be present. I would define an organisations structure as the architecture both visible and invisible which connects and weaves together all aspects of the organisations activities so that it functions in a dynamic way. One simple approach is to consider how an organisations structure is described when represented in the form of a diagram which is most often shown as an organisation chart. Below is an example of formal organisation chart for 3. Organisational Structure of Scottish Enterprise Borders a) Scottish Enterprise operates a formal organisational structure subdivided into regional structures for each Local Enterprise company. This structure is due to the organisation being relatively large, geographically dispersed, and delivering a wide range of goods/services. This is in common with all 12 local enterprise companies and allows us to work in close proximity to our customers and partners, by locating staff throughout lowland Scotland. The regional structuring was adopted following a process the Scottish Enterprise Network went through 2 years ago called Business Transformation. This entailed a radical overhaul of the way Scottish Enterprise conducted its business. As part of Business Transformation the organisational structure of the entire Scottish Enterprise Network was reviewed and as a result a flatter less bureaucratic structure developed. The original structure hindered the decision making process and there was a lack of co-ordination. The network needed to modernise its working practices to ensure that it was giving tax payers value for money. b) It was considered that adopting this type of structure would improve decision making, fix accountability for performance and increase the coordination of functions. This structure allows the network to evaluate and monitor its activities, it also allows a degree of flexibility. The main downside of this strategy is that it does foster rivalry among the divisions. This is why our organisational values became an integral part of how we do business. Rivalry between local enterprise companies and departments is a cultural and historical issue that will probably always exist. In Network terms, our business units are the 12 LECs and the directorates in Atlantic Quay. Every business unit owns a balanced scorecard to help them manage the performance of their own business unit. The reference point for this is the Network balanced scorecard agreed with the Corporate Management Team. Strategy maps articulate the key objectives that describe both what the organisation wants to achieve and how it is going to achieve it, and demonstrates the critical cause and effect relationships between these objectives (i.e. linkages between desired outcomes and what we must have in place internally to deliver them). Strategy maps are now considered to be the single most important and useful element of designing a balanced scorecard. 4. Organisational Chart a) The organisational structure of a business is most easily summarised in an organisational chart. The chart shows at any given moment in time how work is divided and the grouping together of activities, the levels of authority and formal organisational relationships. Organisation charts describe in diagrammatic form the structure of an organisation. It is the skeleton upon which every other activity depends, more importantly, it is the framework which explains the communication pattern, process and the linking mechanisms between the roles. It illustrates to everyone who communicates with whom, how the control system works, who is in control, who has authority and above all, who is responsible. It explains how the organisation is co-ordinated and how individual departments relate. The division of labour and the relationship of one position to another is reflected in an organisational chart which can act as a guide to explain how the work of different people in the organisation is co-ordinated and integrated. Once specified and defined, the jobs and the authority and responsibility relations between them are represented on an organisational chart. Some charts are very sketchy and give only a minimal amount of information whilst others give varying amounts of additional details, such as an indication of the broad nature of duties and responsibilities of the various units. Others include names of post holders and even photographs, and some give the salary grading for individual positions. Using such a chart would allow employees to become familiar with the organisation, making them feel a part of the company, allowing them to know whos who and whats going on. Organisational charts are useful in explaining the outline structure of the company. They may be used as a basis for the analysis and review of structure, for training and management succession, and for formulating changes. The chart indicates several important details about the organisation: * Lines of communication * Delegation of authority * Accountability * Span of Control * The way in which the work of the organisation is grouped Organisational charts have several weaknesses as a means of explaining organisational structure. Most importantly, they may not be consistent with reality. They may not be current. They may imply a formality that does not exist in practice. Often, they are drawn from a top down perspective. The organisation may look quite different from the bottom than from the top. They often imply that a pyramid structure is the best or only way to organise a business. A circular organisational approach or team approach may in fact be better in some cases. The organisation chart may fail to come to come to grips with the power and authority of a popular and charismatic person relatively low in the organisation or a person who has a substantial financial investment in the business without being a formal part of the management team. Hierarchy refers to the number of levels found in an organisation. In a company that has a flat organisation structure there are relatively few levels between the lowest and highest levels of authority. The basic distinction made between tall hierarchical organisations, and flatter teamwork structured organisations is that a tall organisation will have several layers of command. In contrast team structures will be based on cells of team members working together, often belonging to several project teams which form and reform as projects start and finish. The line relationship authority flows vertically down through the structure, for example, from the chief executive to director, director to team. There is a direct relationship between superior and subordinate, with each subordinate responsible to only one person. Line relationships are associated with functional or departmental divisions of work and organisational control. Directors have authority and responsibility for all matters and activities within their own directorate. Lateral Relationships exist between team members. The organisation is not concerned with responsibilities or authority but rather with providing an avenue for communication and co-ordination between widely different aspects of work. The lateral relationships that exist may be categorised into: Colleague Relations: These are the relationship that exists between people working in the same directorate and who are members of the same team. Collateral Relations: These are the relationships that are necessary for the interchange of ideas and opinions between people at the same level but in different teams within the organisation. 5. Organisational Structure Matrix Structure Matrix structures are organisational forms which have evolved as a result of co-ordination problems in highly complex industries such as software development, where functional and product types of structure have not been able to meet organisational demands for a variety of key activities and relationships arising from the required work processes. A matrix structure usually combines a functional form of structure with a project-based structure. For example, in a two year project to produce a modified version of a standard software programme, one project manager will co-ordinate, and be held accountable for, the work to be undertaken by the project team, and he will be the person who deals on a regular basis with the client. However, in addition to reporting to his own senior line manager on progress with the project as a whole, he will also report on specialist matters, such as design issues, to one or more functional managers, depending on the complexity of the project. The functional managers provide technical expertise and organisational stability. The project manager provides the driving force and the day-to-day control required to steer the project through during its relatively temporary lifetime. The main feature of a matrix structure is that it combines lateral with vertical lines of communication and authority. This has the important advantage of combining the relative stability and efficiency of a hierarchical structure with the flexibility and informality of an organic form of structure. A matrix form focuses on the requirements of the project group, which is in direct contact with the client. It helps to clarify who is responsible for the success of the project. It encourages functional managers to understand their contributory role of the purely functional form, i.e. individual empire building by the functional heads. Three conditions are necessary for the matrix: * Economy of scale in the use of internal resources * Environmental pressure for two or more critical factors such as product (need to complete a specific projectfor example development of the Lower Churchill Falls for electricity) and function (specialized work activity skills needed from within the functional structure necessary for completing this project) * Environment is both complex and uncertain Key Matrix Roles The matrix relies on three key roles: Top leader This individual must keep a balance between the two authority structures. The leader attempts to achieve a balanced matrix structure. Oftentimes either a functional matrix (primary boss functional leader) or product matrix (primary boss functional leader). Matrix bosses Individuals who have management responsibility within the functional and divisional structure need to work collaboratively and establish a priori arrangements for decision making and dispute resolution. Two-boss employee These individuals are the employees who perform the essential work and they report to two bosses requiring them to be able to deal with conflicting demands. Strengths and Weaknesses * Achieves coordination necessary to meet dual demands from divisional-product and functional requirements, but dual authority can be frustrating and confusing to employees. * Provides flexible use of human resources across divisions-products, but participants need excellent interpersonal skills for work to proceed smoothly and successfully * Suited to environment in which frequent changes occur, but consensus seeking and meetings are time-consuming * Provides an opportunity for employees to acquire in-depth skill development for both functional and division-product skill development. * Suited best in medium-sized organizations with several products or projects However, like all organisational form, matrix structures do have their disadvantages. The most important are: * The potential conflicts that can arise concerning the allocation of resources and the division of authority as between project groups and functional specialists * The relative dilution of functional management responsibilities throughout the organisation * The possibility of divided loyalties on the part of members of project teams in relation to their own manager and their functional superiors Despite these disadvantages, the matrix form probably offers the best answer to date to the issue of handling the tension between the need to differentiate and the need to integrate the complex activities of modern organisations. Hybrid Structure Hybrid structures occur when an organisation adopts a structure, which combines two structures from either functional, product or customer principles as a basis for its design. Most organisations eventually use multiple forms of structure within a single overall structure. Once work groups have been departmentalised, the organisation needs to develop a network of reporting relationships. A hierarchy is the pattern of reporting relationships between individuals in positions throughout an organisation. The hierarchy has two purposes; to specify which positions are responsible for which areas of operation and to specify the authority of different positions relative to one another. Authority is the power created and granted by the organisation. Organisations must decide how authority is to be distributed among various positions, levels and departments. The process of distributing authority between managers and subordinates is known as delegation. Delegation is a three step process between a manager and one or more subordinates. 1) Assigning responsibility 2) Granting authority 3) Creating accountability Many managers are reluctant to delegate because they dont know how to do so or they feel threatened by a subordinate who performs well. Organisations need to help managers decide how much responsibility to delegate and to overcome the threat of being overshadowed. Decisions about how to distribute authority throughout an organisation result in decentralisation or centralisation. Delegation is essentially a power-sharing process in which individual managers transfer part of their legitimate authority to subordinates/team leaders, but without passing on their own ultimate responsibility for the completion of the overall task which has been entrusted to them by their own superiors. Strengths and Weaknesses * The hybrid is a balance between a pure divisional or product structure and a pure functional structure and combines the advantages of each. * Weaknesses include high administrative costs and potential conflict over goal focus and resource allocations for functional and divisional departments. The reasons for delegation are mainly practical, but some are idealistic. Practical reasons include: * Senior managers can be relieved of less important, or less immediate, responsibilities in order to concentrate on more important duties * Delegation enables decisions to be taken nearer to the point of impact, and without the delays caused by frequent reference upwards * Delegation gives managers the opportunity to experience decision making and the consequences of their decisions * Delegation encourages managers to learn how to cope with responsibility * Delegation enables organisations to meet changing conditions more flexibly, especially at the boundaries of their system Idealistic reasons for delegation include: * Delegation is a good thing for individual growth, and contributes to staff morale * Delegation is the sine qua non of empowerment (Peter, 1988) * Delegation helps to enrich individuals jobs and humanises work. Most organisations find the need to delegate forced on them by circumstances, especially the pressures on managers to concentrate on environmental issues rather than on internal problems. Overall, organisations have to adapt and grow whilst responding to environment and technology changes by developing more complex structures that are composites of the basic types. Both Hybrid and Matrix structures are composites of the basic type of organisation structure. The reasons why organisations divide into different structures is varied. Typically, structures develop out of functional lines (production, sales etc); geography (like Coca Cola); or by business. The reason will be about capitalising on some structural efficiencies or economies of scale to produce competitive advantage. The benefits are that the smaller (hopefully more logical) units will be more manageable, efficient and profitable. Perhaps being closer to their market and more adaptable. Possibly maximising on internal communications and transfer of knowledge. The consequences are (hopefully) that the benefits are realised. However, the best practice is to be found in organisations that use delegation positively as an important employee motivator as well as a means of facilitating effective decision-making throughout the organisation.

Role of Popular Music in Transforming Conflict

Role of Popular Music in Transforming Conflict Abstract Can popular music play a role in conflict transformation and peacebuilding? This kind of question has started to generate a great deal of debate for peacebuilding scholars and pracitioners.   Most of the recent works have focused on the role of art as a whole without looking at particular form of art or particular genre within one form of art like music and assessing its contributions to creating a peaceful society. This paper is an attempt to show only the role popular music can play. It based on a research undertaken in Gulu town in northern Uganda. Findings show that music is playing a supporting role which is either little known or less recognized. In this paper, I argue that popular music is playing a significant role. I discuss how popular music is contributing and fostering conditions of conflict transformation and peacebuilding while relying on document analysis, examinations of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“peace musicà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? lyrics, field interviews and focus group discussion with the government officials, formerly LRA soldiers, musicians and the civilian population. A. Background to Northern Uganda conflict Northern Uganda has been in conflict for over two decades. This conflict is between the government of Uganda (GoU) and the Lordà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Resistance Army (LRA).The conflict is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“rooted in a popular rebellion against the President Yoweri Musevenià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s government.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[2] but when she was defeated in 1987, Joseph Kony took over the mantle of leadership. He transformed the HSM into the LRA and with support of the Government of Sudan in Khartoum; the LRA have been able to cause destruction on the civilian population in northern Uganda. The causes of the conflict are rooted in historical and immediate factors. These includes: The British colonial legacy which divided the north and south. Failure of the President Museveni to honor peace accord he signed in Nairobi in 1985 and finally the NRA violence inflicted on the Acholi when Museveni took over[3]. Since 1993, there have been numerous peace talksà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ efforts to end the conflict but all failed to bring a lasting peace because à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the governmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s lack of firm political will behind a negotiation strategy and the LRAà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s turn to Sudan for arms re-supplies.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[7] The most recent attempt to end the conflict has been the Juba Peace Talks in 2006. This peace talks was held in Juba, the capital of South Sudan and it was mediated by Dr. Riek Machar, Sudanese vice president assisted by UN Special Envoy Joachim Chissano. In this peace talks, all four items of the agenda were signed[8]. But the final peace agreement has not been signed. The notorious leader of the LRA refused to sign the final peace agreement thus throwing the peace process in doubt. This led to a military offensive on LRA by the three countries: Uganda, Sudan and DRC and means the collapse of the peace talks. Peace building initiatives? Currently in northern Uganda, there is relative peace because the LRA have been weakened by the combined military offensive of the three nations. Many civilian populations in the 53 camps in northern Uganda are returning to their villages to rebuild their lives. Both the government and nongovernmental organizations are putting infrastructures: schools, roads and health centers to assist the former victims of conflicts resettle. But there are mixed feeling among the population whether they will have a lasting peace or not since not final peace agreement has been signed by the conflict parties. One of the key issues in northern Uganda during this transition is how to ensure victimsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ justice but à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Most prioritize peace over justice and show signs of reluctance countenance question of accountability.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[10] Since 2005, GoU through the Amnesty Commission have been working to resettle many LRA the ex-combatants and supported communityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s approaches to local methods for forgiveness, peacebuilding and reconciliation. B. Background to role of Music in Acoli society In Acoli society, music occupies a central place. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Music is the lifeblood of the society.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[15] à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Musicians and dancers were highly valued and admired for their skill and their ability to entertain.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[20]. Music in Acoli was mainly by an individual or a group singing and playing musical instrument like à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“lokeme (thumb piano), ajar, a metal percussion instrument, and sometimes the smaller drums (bul).à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[22] Rise of Popular Peace Music in Northern Uganda As the war in northern Uganda escalated, this was a proof that the conflicting parties had failed to resolve their grievances. There was total breakdown in communication between the parties. This resulted into lack of confidence and understanding of each party.[24]. This music is produced in à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“modernà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? studios across northern Uganda. Voices are produced on computer aided beats. There is wide use of modern musical instruments in the music. The lyrics are directed to the government, LRA and occasionally to the civilian population in northern Uganda, other parts of Uganda and the diasporas and international community. As many as 70-100 peace songs are produced annually[29]. C. Literature Review In the last decade, there have been some attempts to show that music can be used in peacebuilding.[32] The shortage of literature on the impact of music for conflict transformation and peacebuilding remains is a serious concern because stakeholders are constrained from making an informed decision on music can function as a tool of conflict transformation and peacebuilding. Perhaps the most groundbreaking work on music and peacebuilding to date is: Music and Conflict Transformation: Harmonies and Dissonances in Geopolitics.[35] Additionally, June Boyce illustrates à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“several models useful when considering the link between music and peaceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? and finally Johan Galtung reveals how music can be used for peace. He investigates à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the uplifting and uniting power music.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Ledarachà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Moral Imagination: the Art and Soul of Peacebuilding[36], empathizes use of creativity in peacebuilding. He used a number of examples to support his arguments about art and peacebuilding. Finally, Lisa Schirchà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Ritual and Symbols in Peacebuilding also supports the view of creativity in peacebuilding.[39] There are some articles which show the prospect of using music in peacebuilding. Michael Shank and Lisa Schirch,[42] Their analysis justifies the role of art while at the same time it is useful for informing peacebuilders on what kind of art to employ and at what stage of conflict. Lesley Pruitt explores how music can contribute to positive peace[44] She adds that music and dance can lead to development of new identity by both the artists and audience and it is this new identity can help in process of dialogue. Therefore, artists through their music can act as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“mediatorsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? because they create new identities and ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s this new identity that can foster dialogue between the conflicting parties. Additionally, Alba Sanfeliu[45] discusses the role of music in peacebuilding. She remarks à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Music is an eloquent language that allows us to express what is happening around us in many senses, and to reflect the times and the situation in which we live. It is inseparable from our social, political, economic and cultural reality.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? She adds that music is also a form of communication. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Lyrics strengthen the message that the author wants to express, emphasizing the sense of the song.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Mores specially she touches on role of popular music and states that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“many singers and groups have composed songs with themes related to peace, personally becoming involved by giving concerts in solidarity with various social causes and making their music into a kind of spokesman and instrument for peace.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? She concludes by arguing for further exploration of music as a tool for conflict transformation. Finally, In conclusion, the reviewed works provide interesting insights into the role of art in general on conflict transformation and peacebuilding but there are not sufficient enough in explaining how specific genre like music and in particular, popular music contributes to conflict transformation and peacebuilding. To begin with, most of the studies done on role of music were based on document reviews and this makes it very difficult to reflect the true situation on the ground. Additionally, the reviewed works widely focus on art or music as a whole. None focuses on popular music. Finally, these studies were based on realities in different parts of the world some of which are significantly different from those in northern Uganda. This study attempts to show the impact of popular music on the conflicting parties in northern Uganda and how this has helped in conflict transformation and peacebuilding in northern Uganda. D. Purpose and Methods of the Study Research was carried out in Gulu Municipality and 2 internally displaced persons (IDP) camps of Amuru and Odek[49]. In all the three locations[51]. Interview guides were open-ended and gave respondents opportunity to speak out his/her mind. This was preferred in order to get more information about knowledge, attitudes and opinions of people about the role popular music in peacebuilding. There were 5 focus group discussions with 30 people (23 were former LRA soldiers and five female) to understand peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s perspective about the role popular music can or has played in peacebuilding[52]. The discussions were freely moderated by the researcher and every participant freely expressed their views during the discussions. Finally, all accessible relevant literatures on the topic were reviewed. These data were got from various libraries including Gulu University, Human Rights Focus, Gulu Public Library and Hesburgh library. E. Impact of Music in Northern Uganda Music and conflict has have long been connected but the role music can play in conflict transformation and peacebuilding have not long been studied although there are new and emerging work in the field[53]. Therefore, to assert that music can transform conflict and promote peacebuilding may be an exaggeration but also failure to recognize the role that music can play in conflict transformation and peacebuilding would again be an understatement facts. From results of focus group discussions and interviews with government officials in Northern Uganda, one can argue that music is playing a supporting role to the conflict transformation and peacebuilding in northern Uganda. Popular music is contributing by: Reaching the government leaders with messages to engage in the peace process, recognizing the government efforts while demanding for a speedy end to peace process, portraying the government failures through comparison of the Acoli society before and after the war thus making the government leaders to work for amendments and finally popular music has become a tool of communication that is now a constant reminder for government about its obligations for peace. a. Government In northern Uganda, popular music is being used to reach both government leaders to engage in peaceful resolution of the conflict. This has been carefully done through name dropping[58]. The impact of name dropping is found to create pressure on some leaders to use their positions to engage in peace process with the LRA because musicians represent the voice of the people. This makes the leaders reach out to the president asking for peaceful engagements with the LRA. According to one government leader: Northern Uganda is a small region. Each time musicians call my name in their songs, I feel I compelled to work for peace. The songs communicate to me personally. It appeals to me in a special way. It portrays me as a leader who can do something for my people. This creates the motivations for me to work for peace. To me, a voice of one musician is a voice of the people suffering in the internally displaced peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s camps[59] Therefore, name dropping has been an effective way of pushing some of the leaders to work for their people. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“It is a push factor for the leaders. It asks nothing from them but to use their position for the sake of the suffering people.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[60] Name dropping has an appropriate appeal for different leaders at a personal level to seek an end to conflict. This appeal is compounded by the fact that the songs are in the language the leaders understand, the leaders are widely known in the region and the songs brings out rich, truthful and powerful issues that goes on in the life of their own people. This motivates some leaders to engage in peacebuilding. Additionally, in a politically hostile region to the current NRM government[68]. This is summed up in one statement by former internally displaced man: When politicians in our community are openly praised by musicians in their songs, this sets the bar so high for politicians and their party because the songs are played on the FM stations across the northern Uganda. This is not only praises and recognition for their work, politicians know that as voters we use the same songs to judge them and hence some are working very hard for peace.[69] Given an environment like northern Uganda, which has been unfriendly to the current government because of the long running conflict, people have genuine grievances again their government[72] It recognizes and praises politicians and the government, while at the same time it sets a target for them to achieve thus leading to engagement of some political leaders in the peace process. Furthermore, the religious leaders have also not been spared by the popular artists. They have also been singled out for commitment to peace in northern Uganda and asked to do more in their capacity. Musicians like Bosmic Otim, one of the first popular artists to emerge in northern Uganda in early 2000 with very high popularity went on in his song, Too Paco, to appreciate one religious leader for his extra-ordinary courage and commitment on working for peace. He points out the impact of the war on the Acoli society. He suggests to the government to adopt the non-violent strategy of the religious leaders. He calls for a non-violence strategy because failure of the military strategy which has inflicted great pain on the civilian population. He goes on in his lyrics to say à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Letà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s see example from Nelson Mandela who fought for peace non violent, let us see example from Bishop Mark Baker Ochola, who is emphasizing talk peace because war increases the death tollà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Such a creative way of sending peace messages by the popular artists have been effective. Popular music have been able to communicate peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s desire for peace to the religious leaders. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Popular music has become additional call to protect their flocks from wolves.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[76]. Furthermore, popular musicians have used their songs as a comparative tool for northern Uganda especially Acoli society. This comparison is based on looking back at Acoli society before the war and comparing it with the society during war. This evokes images of past governments as more successful than the current regime[79]. Some popular songs are explicit imagery of government failure.[82]   This careful manipulation of music to compare Acoli societies is disastrous for the image of the government and NRM political leadership. It has compelled some government leaders to do more to save its image by protecting its citizens while at the same time creating a task that peace is the ultimate goal the government has to achieve in order to avoid comparisons with the past regimes. Dida Moses, in his song Too Oroma-wa, ask a rhetorical question and goes to show the suffering, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Our people, spiritual leaders what do we do? War that started since has not ended, Strong homes have collapsed, Seeing people run for their lives is painfulà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Cutting peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s legs, killing is so painful, Children are suffering, children sleep hungry, Children sleep with blankets, children do go to school, Today I pray to God, the rate of death is too muchà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? In some of these songs, the government commitment to northern Uganda is questioned indirectly. The reference to pre-Acoli society invokes images of better days of freedom, schooling, ability to meet basic needs and above all a peaceful society under previous government.[84]. This creates a drive for leaders to engage more in peace talks in order to deliver peace, the ultimate wish of the people. Finally, popular music is being used to communicate and remind government of its obligation for peace in a region where people seem to have given up after two decades of war and accepted the status quo. Musicians have not given up. They have continued to remind the government and create awareness about the war in northern Uganda, nationally and internationally.   Popular music is a constant à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“burdenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? and reminder to Acoli government leaders.[86] These peace concerts bring popular artists from all over the country in northern Uganda to sing for peace and fundraise for the IDP communities. In April 2004 feted Ugandan musician Jose Chameleone teamed up with Richard Kaweesa, another renowned Ugandan musician, in a peace restoration project called [87] In these musical concerts nothing else is sung about but peace.[90] Therefore, popular music has become medium of reminding the government on what people wants while at the same time creating awareness and building a coalition for peace in the northern Uganda which generates public pressure on the government to seek an alternative to the conflict As a result of this constant reminder and call to the government and LRA for peace, the governments of Uganda and South Sudan have come to recognize the role of music in conflict transformation and peacebuilding thus exhibiting the power of popular music in northern Uganda. In 2005, Loketo Lee, was recognized for his outstanding contributions to the peace process. His contribution was first felt outside his own country-Uganda to Southern Sudan and Sudanese vice president, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Salvar Kiirà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦handed Loketo Lee a Peace Award for his contribution, through his music, to the countrys peace process.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[93]. This points to the role music can in a musically responsive society like northern Uganda. b. Lordà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Resistance Army In northern Uganda, popular music is being used for informing and educating the LRA on amnesty[95] These musical messages have had some impact on LRA through the radio. According to one participant, a former LRA foot soldier: Mega FM has been useful for amnesty messages. The religious leaders and also some songs were very influential in letting us know what amnesty was all about. When our leaders realized we were listening to amnesty messages whether talk shows or music, they stopped us and whoever was found was punished severely. From the perspective of some formerly abducted children interviewed, popular music on the FM stations particularly Mega FM proved to have been effective in disseminating amnesty information. Consequently, some LRA fighters were able to return home. This statement by the former LRA solders is corroborated by Boniface Ojok, in his remarks about the impact of radio communication to the LRA. On realizing that they were reducing in numbers, the LRA leadership discouraged its middle ranking commanders and foot soldiers from listening to radios. Many of the former LRA rebels we talked to said that when the LRA realized that radios were becoming so effective in luring the midlevel commanders and foot soldiers, a warning was issued that radios should be used only by the top leadership[96] Popular music therefore is being used to communicate important messages for the LRA. These messages are effective in informing and educating the LRA. To some former child soldiers, popular artist had become their role models. Some agreed to being persuaded by popular musicians. Their songs about amnesty and asking them to abandon the rebellion was informative and as well as appealing to them to come out of the bush[97]. Additionally, popular musical is helping in confidence building among the LRA.[100]   These cases have been used as propaganda by the LRA leadership to deter foot soldiers from returning but popular artists have razed this propaganda. Strong message for brotherhood, reconciliation, forgiveness and welcome have been sung by the musician including making a personal call to the LRA top leadership about their safety on return. Artists like Baby Dalvin, believes that amnesty from the government without further assurance from civilian population was not enough for the LRA to return.   The LRA fighters were aware of the pardon through the amnesty but they did not know how the civilian populations in the camps would be reacting to them. Government assurance from prosecutions was not enough. Artists had to step in and assure the LRA fighters about their safety from the civilian populations. Popular music was able to fill the void left by the government. Popular music sent assurances about safety and that people are willing to reconcile with them. These have been able to restore some level of confidence in the LRA. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Some artists have even called the LRA fighters as brothers and for Acoli people when someone has called you a brother that is best assurance of acceptance without revenge.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[102] Similarly, when the leaders of the LRA were indicted by International Criminal Court, its impact was expected on the peace process.[105] Such opposition of the external forces to the peace process has been cited to create confidence on the LRA because they feel the masses and the government are willing to save them ICC prosecutions. Thus the artists have been able to add their voice to already a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“hostileà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? region to ICC creating a feeling of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“safetyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? among some LRA from the government and people in northern Uganda. Furthermore, the role popular music is playing today is a replica of the role songs played in Acoli traditional community. Traditionally, songs were used to entertain and teach. Leaders with unruly behaviors were mocked.[107] This role of music still lives on in the popular music today. Popular artists have not downplayed the atrocities the LRA have committed in the two decades. Lyrics reflect LRA atrocities and challenge the LRA. Popular music have exposed the atrocities and blamed the LRA. Artists have reacted to what they see as contrary to societal values. In northern Uganda, both the government and the LRA have been seeking to dehumanize and blame each for the atrocities but many popular artists have blamed LRA and asked them to end atrocities. Towngweno, in their song, Bedo I camp, hits the LRA à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“everyone is talking with name, what popularity are you seeking? Orphans, widows are becoming many because of you!   Why do you want to finish Acoli?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Such songs not only expose but also strike guilt for atrocities among the LRA[112] à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“I am alone now! What can I say? I am now alone in our home! What can I say? I now have no mother, No sister, No brother, No father, No uncle, War has finished all the sons and daughters of Acolià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? According to another respondent, a former rebel, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“popular music have summed up what has happened and if you have carried such atrocities you feel compelled to lay down your gun and come and ask for apologies.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[114] Finally, popular artists have used their music to frame the conflict in a way that affects the LRA positively forcing them to reconsider peace.[116] The framing has changed perceptions and made information relevant and persuasive to the LRA. The framing is based on the notion of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“defeatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“interestà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? of the LRA in the war. To many people interviewed, the conflict should have been ended if the government had pursued peaceful means[120] in his songs, Dok Paco, he plays with the notion of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“defeat.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? He calls the LRA to negotiate with the government. He says à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“negotiating does not mean you are defeatedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? to dispel the myth defeat.   Additionally, Bosmic Otim frames the conflicts on à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“interestà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? of the LRA. While the LRA claims to be fighting for marginalization of people in northern Uganda, they are at the same time committing gruesome violence on the people. Bosmic, in his song Peace Returns, he says à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“If a government soldier dies tomorrow, you will find an Acoli, if a LRA soldier diesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦you will find an Acoli.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? His framing reinforces the view that one tribe is finishing itself meaning there is no point in continuing the fight. These framings help in changing perceptions. It can be very persuasive. According to former rebels, they cited two impacts. First, they have been persuaded by this framing which made some rebels à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“ready to move to another life?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[121] Secondly, they have been able to see the reality of the conflict and its impact. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“We were able to see the other side of the coin.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? This frame has made some large-scale changes in society. Concluding Observations Music has some problems too. There are in fights among some popular musicians and this has sometimes affected their position in society as peacebuilder. There have been incidences of popular artist fighting and how can they talk for peace if they are involved in violence. This is simply because of public rating people give to the peace songs. This has resulted into creating camps among the popular artist leading t to in fights. Additional, commercial interest of some musicians and recording artists has overshadowed peace music. Many times they are diverted from real issues and forced to sing what the government wants or because their promoters have already got money. This causes diversion and hence reduction in the peace messages in northern Uganda Furthermore, some upcoming popular artist stated that there is alot of politics of the FM stations which only play music from recognized artists leaving them to suffer and languishing with their peace songs. Some artist suggested that music managers at the FM stations ask them lump sum money to include their songs on their playlist. This limits the peace songs to only a few and popular artist leaving out some upcoming musicians. This sometimes kills the potential of young artist who could be having genuine interest in promoting peacebuilding in the region. Finally, artists also expressed fear at the government. Some artist believe they cannot confront the government because they fear for the lives and fear that FM stations will not play their songs and this limits them from being neutral and hence affecting their reputation and neutrality in the songs. In spite of these limitations, there are also a number of arguments why popular music is still effective in conflict transformation and peacebuilding in the case of northern Uganda. To begin with, in considering that music can contribute to peacebuilding, one has to look at the cultural context. In northern Uganda has been sued since time in memorial..Therefore, this provides a best opportunity to use music further for peacebuilding. Secondly, within music, there are more than songs. There is communication, rhythm and movement which when combined becomes a very powerful gesture for peace. In listening to music and watching videos, one can see that these are very effective in reinforcing There is very good creativity and understanding of the local context by musicians. The use of name dropping was suggested by one politician as the most effective way Finally, the popular music is very relevant to local issues in northern Uganda. Music and power especially electoral democracy In this article, only a limited number of songs, most of which come from the musical genre à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Bongo Flavaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ have been described. There are undoubtedly songs about AIDS from other types of music, including gospel music that may be influential. Nevertheless, the songs described here do provide insight into the promise held by utilizing musicians as popular opinion leaders and song as a medium not only to convey important health information, but also as a mechanism for triggering social and behavior changeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.SHERI BASTIEN [122] 4 [(]* Is a MA candidate at the University of Notre Dame. He earned a B.A. in Humanities from Makerere University. He also holds a Post-graduate diploma in Conflict Management and Peace Studies and a Post-graduate diploma in Education from Gulu University. He has served as an Information Officer for a relief organization and a health communication group. Recently, he worked for the Norwegian Refugee Council as communication and Monitoring and Evaluation Manager. He has conducted many researches on the role of the media in conflict transformation in northern Uganda. [1] Moses Cyprus Okello and Lucy Hovil, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Confronting the Reality of Gender Based Violence in Northern Uganda,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? The International Journal of Transitional Justice 1(3) 2007: 375-390. [2] See Behrend, Heike, Alice Lakwena and the Holy Spirits: War in Northern Uganda, 1985-97 (James Currey, Oxford 1999) [3] See Allen, Tim, 1991, Understanding Alice: Ugandaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Holy Spirit Movement in Context. Africa, vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 370-399. Branch, Adam, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Neither Peace, nor Justice: Political Violence and the Peasantry in Northern Ugandaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2005) 8(2) African Study Q 1, [4] Lomo, Zachary and Hovil, Lucy, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Behind the Violence: Causes, Consequences and the Search for Solutions to the War in Northern Uganda,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Refugee Law Project Working Paper No. 11 (February 2004), p43 http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4a3f8d3c1e.html [accessed 21 January 2010] [6] Moses Cyprus Okello and Lucy Hovil, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Confronting the Reality of Gender Based Violence in Northern Uganda,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? The International Journal of Transitional Justice 1(3) 2007: 375-390. [7] See Justice and Reconciliation Project, Cooling of the Hearts: Community Truth Telling in Acholi-land,   2007, 6 http://www.csopnu.net/?jc=juba [accessed 21 January 2010] [9] Moses Cyprus Okello and Lucy Hovil, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Confronting the Reality of Gender Based Violence in Northern Uganda,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? The International Journal of Transitional Justice 1(3) 2007: 375-390. [10] Interviews with a leader, Odek, 27 December 2009 [11] Interviews with a 67 year old in Odek, 27 December 2009 [12] Interviews with a leader, Odek, 27 December 2009 [13] Interviews with a leader, Odek, 27 December 2009 [14] Schumann, Anne à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The Beat that Beat Apartheid: The Role of Music in the Resistance against Apartheid in South Africa,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift fÃÆ' ¼r kritische Afrikastudien Nr. 14/2008, 8. Jg., 17à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?39 p:2 [15] Kaiser, Tania 2006. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Songs, Discos and Dancing in Kiryandongo, Ugandaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 32, no. 2, March 2006, pp. 183à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"202, pp184 [16] Ibid 188 [17] Interviews with a leader, Odek, 27 December 2009 [18] Interviews with a leader, Odek, 27 December 2009 [19] Interviews with a leader, Odek, 27 December 2009 [20] Interviews with a leader, Odek, 27 December 2009 [21] Kaiser, Tania, pp 7 [22] Kaiser, Tania, pp 7 [23] Interviews with a leader, Odek, 27 December 2009 [24] Interviews with a musician, Gulu Town, 3rd January 2010 [25] Interviews with a studio owner in Gulu Town, 23rd December 2009 [26] There are 5 radio stations in Gulu [27] There are 10 recordi